Şu makalenin supplamentary material kısmından alınmıştır: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2024.1334309/full
TASKS and DESCRIPTIONS
Dual-Tasking
Alphanumeric equation task and a visual detection DT (Compton & Logan, 1991; Logan, 1988)
Participants are required to perform an alphanumeric equation while simultaneously responding to a color change on a computer screen.
Auditory discrimination and visual identification task (Bherer et al., 2006)
Participants are required to distinguish between low and high pitch tones whilst identifying which of the two letters (B or C) is presented on a computer screen.
Baddeley’s digit recall and tracking task and its variant (Baddeley et al., 1986)
In the recall condition participants must verbally recall a span of digits immediately following their presentation, in the same order heard. Participants completed the span length at which they could recall three different lists correctly for 2 minutes. In the tracking condition, participants tracked the path of a white square on a computer screen at a difficulty based on their performance in a test session by increasing the speed of the moving target. Participants completed this task in three 2 minutes trials. Both tasks also were performed simultaneously for 2 minutes.
Digit recall and tracking task (Foley et al., 2013)
In the recall condition, a fixed span length for the participant is used. This is previously established as the maximum span length recalled during a 90 second single-task practice session. In the tracking condition, participants are required to draw a line in successive order through a series of 319 circles arranged along an irregular path across a sheet of A3 paper with a pencil, as fast as they can, from start to finish in 90 seconds. The tasks are performed separately and simultaneously.
Della Sala DT (Della Sala et al., 1995)
Pen and paper version of Baddeley’s digit recall and tracking task and its variant (Baddeley et al., 1986).
Psychological Refractory paradigm (PRP) (Pashler, 1994; Welford, 1952)
Participants perform two speeded choice-response tasks, e.g., an auditory and visual task or two visual tasks, etc at different stimulus onset asynchronies (SOA, the time between the presentation of the two task). Numerous SOAs may be used in a task, i.e., SOA of 0ms, 100ms, 200ms, etc.
Dual- task Stroop paradigm (Ward et al., 2021)
Participants perform the traditional Stroop task as a baseline, followed by two dual-task Stroop variants, a color-dual and a lexical-dual. In the color-dual, participants must complete the traditional Stroop while simultaneously counting the number of times they view a stimulus of a certain color regardless of lexical content. In the lexical-dual, participants must complete the traditional Stroop while simultaneously counting the number of times they view a stimulus of a particular word regardless of the color.
The Color and Letter dual-task (Laguë-Beauvais et al., 2015)
This task consisted of blocks of single-trials, single-mixed (SM) trials and dual-mixed (DM) trials. The SP blocks consisted of 20 trials of either the Color or Letter task of 40 trials. In the Color task participants had to determine whether the colour of an X presented above the central point of the computer screen was yellow (A) or green (S) on a QWERTY keyboard with their left middle and index fingers. In the Letter task, participants had to identify the letters B (K) or C (L) presented below the central point of the computer screen by typing on a QWERTY keyboard with their right index and middle fingers.
In the SM trials are single-task trials (only the Color or the Letter task is performed) combined with DM trials, i.e., both single-tasks are present on the screen, one above the another, but the participant is instructed to response to only of the task.
In the DM trials, participants are required to response to both tasks on the screen. In the Priority block condition, participants were instructed to prioritize the Letter task over the Color Task, and in Equal block condition, give equal priority to both tasks. Half the participants completed the Priority condition first and Equal condition second, while the other half completed the Equal condition first and the Priority condition second.
Test for Everyday Attention (TEA) dual-task telephone search subtest (Robertson et al., 1994, 2001)
Participants are required to perform a visual scanning task where they searched for a specific telephone code with a matching symbol, and an auditory task, where they counted the number of low frequency tones heard in an audio of combined high and low frequency tones. The tasks are normally performed separately and simultaneously.
Visual and auditory processing paradigm (Dannhauser et al., 2005)
Two stimuli, a visual and auditory, are presented in alternating ON and OFF periods. The visual stimulus consisted of a square black and white chequerboard pattern that fills up the entire screen. The squares were reversed at three frequencies (2, 4, 8 Hz) for fixed periods of 16s (ON) alternating with 16s of cross-hair fixation (OFF), and randomized within each set of three consecutive stimulation-fixation cycles. The auditory stimulus consisted of a male voice reading a list of nouns presented at three randomized word rates (30, 60, 90 words/min) for fixed periods of 24s (ON), alternating with 24 s of silence (OFF).
Visual stimulus and cognitive DT Makizako et al (2013)
In the visual stimulus, participants are instructed to push a button on the presentation of a bright red light, and in the cognitive test, count backward to 1, where the starting point for counting was selected randomly (from the numbers 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30 and 20) by the examiner.
DT word span task (Beni et al., 1998)
Participants must verbally read the words presented aloud and to press the animal key whenever they read an animal name. There are three trials for each span size from two to eight.
Inhibition
Antisaccade task (Hallett, 1978; Roberts et al., 1994)
In Sylvain-Roy et al. (2015)’s version a visual cue was presented on either the left or right of the screen followed immediately by a target arrow, on the opposite side. The participants were required to indicate the direction the arrow pointed.
In Crawford et al. (2017)’s version, participants are required to gaze in the opposite direction to a presented red dot. In the first modified version, a memory-guided antisaccade task, participants were presented with a randomly placed red dot as the target, along with four adjacently placed green dots as distractors. Firstly, they were instructed to gaze at the target in the first condition, then secondly, they had to gaze at the location of the previously presented target on a blank screen. In the second version of the task, a go/no-go antisaccade task was used. The presentation of a centrally placed red cross denoted a ‘no-go’ response, while a green cross required a ‘go’ response.
In Chehrehnegar et al. (2022)’s version, two different paradigms are performed, a gap and an overlap. In the gap, where at the start of the task a central fixation cross is presented for 1000 or 1500 ms randomly before turning red and disappears for 200 ms. The target stimuli then appear for 2000 ms. In the overlap, the fixation cross is displayed for 200 ms during the target presentation, and the target is then presented for an additional 2000 ms.
Flanker task (Eriksen & Eriken, 1974)
Participants are required to respond to a centrally placed stimulus "flanked" by concurrently presented irrelevant stimuli (that can be congruent or incongruent with the central stimuli), e.g., <<< < <<< or <<< > <<<.
Modified flanker task (Van’t Ent, 2002)
Standard task with two addition conditions, a PRO and ANTI. In the PRO condition, responses correspond to the target arrow, in the ANTI, responses do not correspond to target arrow, i.e., the responses used in the PRO condition were reversed in the ANTI. To distinguish between the conditions, different colors were used for the target arrow.
Global-local task (Hübner & Malinowski, 2002)
Participants are presented with element letters forming a large letter (e.g., a large “Y” formed from small “V”s). In the global task, participants must identify the global elements (i.e., “Y”) while suppressing the response induced by the local letters. In the local task, participants must identify the local elements (i.e., the small “V”s) while suppressing the response induced by the global letter.
Go/no-go task (Newman & Kosson, 1986)
Participants are required to respond to the appearance of a specific stimulus (‘go’ condition) but withhold responses on the presentation of a different stimulus (‘no-go’ condition).
Emotional go/no-go task (Waring et al., 2019)
The go/no-go task with the use of various facial expressions, i.e., happy, sad, as stimuli.
Hayling Sentence Completion Test (HSCT) (Burgess & Shallice, 1997)
Participants are required to complete a high cloze sentence with a missing last word. In part A, the initiation section, the congruent condition of the test, a related, expected word should be provided. In part B, the inhibition section, the incongruent condition, an unrelated, unexpected word should be provided.
Emotional HSCT (Dupart et al., 2018)
Analog of the HSCT using emotionally charged sentences and comparing the words the participants produced as either emotionally neutral, positive, or negative.
Stroop task (Stroop, 1935)
Participants must complete three sections each consisting of 100 items, part 1) a word naming (congruent) where the words RED, GREEN, and BLUE printed in black ink, part 2) an ink color naming (congruent) where XXXX was written in the colors green, blue, and red, i.e., XXXX, XXXX and XXXX, and part 3) the naming of the ink color of the word (incongruent) section, where the words in part 1 are printed in the colors of the items in part 2, i.e., RED, GREEN, or BLUE. Participants perform these tasks as quickly as possible, usually within a specific timeframe, e.g., within 45 seconds per section.
Emotional Stroop (Agustí et al., 2017; Kamboureli & Economou, 2021; Meléndez et al., 2020; Satorres et al., 2020)
Participant are presented with images of happy or sad faces with a word ‘happy’ or ‘sad’ superimposed. In the congruent condition the face and word represent the same expression, i.e., happy, and in the incongruent, they are not. Participants complete ‘face’ and ‘word’ blocks where they have to respond with the facial expression or word, respectively. Performance between the congruent and incongruent conditions is compared.
Number Stroop (Salthouse & Meinz, 1995)
Participants must count the number of one to four centrally presented digits while ignoring the numerical value of the digit. In congruent trials, the number of digits corresponds to the digits displayed. In incongruent trials, the number of digits does not correspond to the digits displayed. In neutral trials, unrelated symbols were displayed (e.g., $$).
Modified Stroop (Bohnen et al., 1992)
Stroop task with an added fourth condition where participants were required to switch between naming the color of the ink and naming of ink color of the word, i.e., the incongruent condition.
Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System Color-Word Interference test (D-KES CWIT) (Delis et al., 2001)
Stroop task with an added a fourth condition, where participants instead switch between word naming and naming of the ink color of the word.
Math Stroop (Zamarian et al., 2007)
Participants must complete three conditions arithmetic. In the first condition, participants complete pure blocks of either addition or multiplication problems. In the second condition, participants complete a mixed block consisting of both addition and multiplication problems. In the third block, participants must solve addition problems as multiplication and vice versa.
Interference and Reverse Stroop (Amieva et al., 2004)
Briefer version of the Stroop, consisting of cards with the names, BLUE, RED, YELLOW, GREEN printed in a contrasting ink color. In the Interference version, participants must identify the word, and in the Reverse version, participants must identify the ink color.
Victoria Stroop (Spreen & Strauss, 1998)
This is a briefer version of the traditional Stroop task, consisting of three stimulus cards comprised of 24 items, where participants are required to quickly name either the, 1) color of dots (Dot condition-Card, 1), 2) color of the ink of the neutral words printed (Word condition-Card 2), and 3) color of the ink in which the words (names) are printed (Interference condition-Card 3).
Nonverbal Stroop task (Pettigrew & Martin, 2014)
Task comprises three conditions, a neutral condition, where participants were presented with a stimulus in the centre of a computer screen, e.g., left-pointing arrow. In the congruent condition, the stimulus is on the same side the arrow is pointing, e.g., left-pointing arrow on the left side of the screen. In incongruent condition, the stimulus is on the opposite size the arrow is pointing, e.g., a left-pointing arrow on the right side of the screen. The participants were required to respond with the direction the arrow was pointing, right or left.
Picture-word interference task (Lupker, 1979; Schriefers et al., 1990)
This task involves the completion of two conditions, an interference condition, where a picture is superimposed with a distractor word from the same semantic category, and a non-interference condition, where a picture is superimposed with a distractor word from a different semantic category. Participants were required to respond with what was seen in the picture, while ignoring the word.
N-2 repetition paradigm (Mayr & Keele, 2000)
Participants are presented with groups of four different stimuli (i.e., rectangles with different dimension - orientation, fill or size). One stimulus differs in a dimension from the remaining three stimuli. Following a cue. Participants must indicate which of the four stimuli is different.
Negative priming (Tipper, 1985)
Participants are required to respond to a stimulus that was previously presented as a distractor in trial (n), so becoming the target. In the studies reviewed the incongruent condition of the Stroop task was used, where what was ignored in the previous trial was attended to in the present trial.
Negative compatibility task (Eimer & Schlaghecken, 1998; Schlaghecken et al., 2012)
Participants are first presented with a centrally positioned prime (a left or right arrow or a symbol in neutral trials), then a blank screen followed by a mask period consisting of an overlap of all the exemplars of the prime for a period. Followed by a blank screen for a time period, and then the target arrow. Participants must indicate the direction of the target arrow. In congruent trials, the prime arrow and target arrow are in the same direction. In incongruent trials, the prime arrow and target arrow are in different directions.
Positive compatibility task (Eimer & Schlaghecken, 1998; Schlaghecken et al., 2012)
Same as the negative compatibility task but the presentations of the prime, mask and target arrow occur immediately after each other.
Random number generation task (Audiffren et al., 2009)
Participants are required to produce a number between 1 and 9 verbally every time a computer-generated tone is heard, approximately every second, such that a string of numbers is generated randomly. 100 responses are recorded, usually within 100 seconds. The total adjacency score (%), i.e., the distribution of adjacent digits (in ascending or descending series) from the ordinal sequence of alternatives (i.e., 1–2; or 8–7–6) is measured. Successful performance requires the efficiency of two EFs, the correct inhibition of overlearned schemas (i.e., counting) and correct updating of working memory (WM).
Simon task (Simon, 1969)
Similar to the nonverbal Stroop minus the neutral condition, where in response to the color of the shape of a stimulus, i.e., a red or green circle or square, participants had to respond left or right.
Stop-signal task (Logan et al., 1984; B. R. Williams et al., 1999)
Participants must perform a specific task as quickly as they can following the presentation of a ‘go’ signal and stop following a ‘stop’ signal during the duration of a trial.
Shifting
Behavioral Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome rule shift cards task (Wilson et al., 1996)
The task consists of 21 nonpictorial playing cards. In part 1, participants are required to respond with “Yes” to a red card and “No” to a black card. In the second part, a new rule is provided, respond “Yes” if the presented card is the same color as the previous turned card and “No” if the color is different. Therefore, participants have to modify their responses, inhibiting their original response set and shift their thought process.
Design fluency test (Harter et al., 1999; Jones-Gotman & Milner, 1977)
Participants are required to complete three test conditions to create different designs in ‘n’ number of squares by using four straight lines to connect. The first condition requires connecting filled unnumbered dots, 2) unfilled dots, and 3) the shifting condition, alternate between connecting filled and unfilled dots, all within 60 seconds for each condition.
Dimension-switching task (Albinet et al., 2012; Monsell & Mizon, 2006; Rogers & Monsell, 1995)
Participants are presented with the word, LEFT or RIGHT, enclosed in a left or right arrow, presented above or below the center of a white screen. Depending on the location of the presented stimulus, participants are required to respond with the direction either printed in text (the word) or the direction of the arrow. Participants completed word and arrow only task blocks, as well as blocks of pseudo-randomly mixed word and arrow trial.
Trail making test (Reitan, 1992; Reitan & Wolfson, 1986)
This test encompasses two parts, in part A, the participant is required to connect 25 numbered (1, 2, 3, etc) dots or circles, in sequential order, and in part B, alternate between letters and numbers in ascending order (1, A, 2, B, etc).
Alternating trail making version (Schmitter-Edgecombe & Sanders, 2009)
Analogous of the traditional trail making test part B.
Letter-number TMT (Pa et al., 2010)
Entails completing a letter only, and number only, and switching condition. In the first two conditions, participants must connect the letters or numbers in serial order. In the switching, they must alternate between numbers and letters in sequential order.
Modified TMT (Heuer et al., 2013; Kramer et al., 2006)
Entails serially alternating between connecting numbers and days of the week.
Modified TMT part B test (Chen et al., 2013)
Entails alternating connecting lines between numbers and weekday circles, within 60 seconds.
Oral trail making test (Bastug et al., 2013)
In part A, participants are instructed to verbally count from 1 to 25, and in part B, to alternate between counting numbers and letters as seen in the paper version, 1-A-2-B, etc
Color trails test (D’Elia et al., 1996)
Analogous of the trial making test, was utilized by two studies, Huang et al (2017) and McGuinness et al (2010), in AD participants. It requires participants to complete two parts, in part 1, the participants connect circles numbered 1 to 25 in ascending order, and part 2, connect the numbers 1 to 25 in order, but alternate between two colors (i.e., 1-pink-2-blue-3-pink-, etc).
Left–right shifting task (Belleville et al., 2008)
Participants are required to identify one of two digits presented on the left side of a screen in the first block, and on the right side of a screen in the second block. In the shifting block, the target number is randomly placed on either side of the screen and indicated by a visual cue.
More-odd shifting task (Salthouse et al., 1998; Zheng et al., 2012)
Participants complete three task conditions, 1) respond either “greater” or “less” if a red number presented on a screen is larger or smaller then a five, respectively, 2) respond with “odd” or “even” when the number is colored green, and 3) a combination of the conditions 1) and 2) in one block, where the participant is cued to the task to perform.
Number-letter task (Rogers & Monsell, 1995)
Participants are required to classify whether a number-letter pair presented in one of four boxes in the center of a computer screen are either odd or even, or a vowel or consonant. More precisely, whether the number is odd or even when the pair is seen in one of the top two boxes, during the number task, or if the letter is a vowel or consonant when the pair is seen in one of the bottom two boxes, during the letter task.
Plus-minus task (Jersild, 1927; Miyake et al., 2000; Spector & Biederman, 1976)
Participants are required to complete three conditions, 1) to add a specific number to every number presented, 2) subtracts a specific number from every number presented, and 3) alternate between adding and subtracting a specific number.
S-R compatibility switching task (Albinet et al., 2012; Monsell & Mizon, 2006; Rogers & Monsell, 1995)
Participants are presented with a screen containing a white frame. At the start of each trial, the white frame changes color to red or green. After a duration of 250ms or 1750ms, a left or right pointing arrow is presented at a random location within the frame. Participants are required to respond by pressing a button located either on the side indicated by the arrow, when the frame is green, or the opposite side, when the red frame. Participants complete single blocks of one frame color, and then mixed blocks with both frame color occurring pseudo-randomly.
Stroop switching card test (Belghali et al., 2022)
Participants are presented with four different cards (red, blue, green, and yellow), placed in front of them and are given 36 cards with text (red, blue, green, and yellow) in the four colors on either black or gray backgrounds. Participants must say aloud quickly the ink color of the text if the background on the card is gray, or the written text when the background is black. Then place the cards onto one of the four colored cards placed in front of them corresponding to the color named.
Task switching paradigm (Rogers & Monsell, 1995)
Participants are required to perform two conditions, a repetition condition, where participants complete the same task repeatedly in a block (two different tasks are completed, i.e., an audio and a visual task), and a shifting condition, where the completion of the two repetition tasks presented pseudo randomly within the same block is required.
Visual elevator (Robertson et al., 2001)
Part of the TEA, participants are required to count upwards or downwards as they follow a series of visually presented numbers corresponding to floors in an elevator. The task demands the participants shift the direction of counting.
Wisconsin card sorting task (Berg, 1948; Nelson, 1976)
Participants are presented with a number of stimulus cards with sets of symbols that vary in color, shape, and number (e.g., 3 green triangles or 2 yellow squares). They are instructed to categorize them according to a particular dimension (i.e., color, shape, or number). The category rule changes every time 10 (out of a maximum of 128) response cards have been sorted correctly, but the participants are unaware of this pattern.
Updating
(Alpha)bet span task (Belleville et al., 1998; Craik et al., 2018)
Participants must either repeat a list of words in the same serial order presented to them or mentally rearrange them into alphabetical order.
Backward digit recall span test (WAIS-R or WAIS-III) (Egeland, 2015; Griffin & Heffernan, 1983; Wechsler, 2012)
Participants must immediately recall a list of digits previously presented in reverse order. The span length ranges from two to eight, and each length is completed twice.
Backward spatial span (Wechsler, 1987)
Participants are required to recall various sequence spans presented on a screen in reverse order.
Keep track task (Yntema, 1963)
Participants are required to keep track of 15 words presented in sequential order and remember the last (most recent) word from one of ‘n’ categories presented, e.g., colors or animals. They must respond with the last word at the end of the trial. In Sylvain-Roy et al. (2015)’s version, participants read a series of semantically correct or anomalous sentences, and judge each, i.e., with ‘yes’ or ‘no’, for semantic plausibility, in addition to remembering the last word of the sentence. They must recall all the last words verbally at the end of each series, which varies from two to five sentences of four blocks per series length.
Letter-number sequencing (Egeland, 2015; Wechsler, 2012)
Participants must recall a sequence of previously presented randomly mixed letters and numbers in sequential order, i.e., letters alphabetically ordered first (A, B, C, etc), and then numbers in ascending numerical order (1, 2, 3, etc).
Letter updating task (Sylvain-Roy et al., 2015)
Participants orally recall the last consonant seen in a series of visually presented consonants. The number of consonants to be recalled is determined individually for the participant prior to the start of the actual task, minus one item, during a practice session. The participants are presented with a series of four different lengths, 1) the participant’s span minus one, 2) the participant’s span plus one, 3) the participant’s span plus three, and 4) the participant’s span plus five items, randomly.
N-back task (Jaeggi et al., 2010; Kirchner, 1958)
Participants respond with the position of a stimulus presented on a screen ‘n’ position(s) prior. In the non-spatial version, participants are required to recognize a stimulus presented at ‘n’ screen positions prior. In the spatial version, the position on the screen the stimulus is presented is required. For example, at 0-back trial, the position of the stimulus at 0 position (the present) screen is required. During 1-back, the position a screen prior to the present screen is required, and so on. The higher the n-back position, the greater the WM demand. Thus, a 3-back task will consist of the completion of the 0-, 1-, 2- and 3-back conditions.
Operation span (Turner & Engle, 1989)
A mathematical operation and an item (word or letter) are presented to the participant. They must verbally say if the operation is correct (i.e., true or false) and remember the item presented. At the end of each trial, the participant must recall the items in serial order. After three consecutive errors the task is terminated. Typically, the task consists of 15 trials with two to six operation-word pairs, 3 trials per length.
Random number generation task (Baddeley, 1998)
Previously described under inhibition. It also assesses updating ability by measuring the Redundancy score (%), which is based on the rate on which individual digits are utilized. A score of 0% suggests no redundancy, i.e., good randomness, and no repetitiveness of digits (e.g., 5, 1, 7, 9, 3, 6, 2, 4, 8), whilst a score of 100% equates to complete redundancy, i.e., repeated use of the same response choice, throughout (e.g., 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1).
Reading span (Daneman & A.Carpenter, 1980)
Typically involves participants verbally read sentences and remember the last word of each sentence in a set or block. They must recall all the last words verbally in the order of each set. The sentences get increasingly longer in a set until the participant fails three in a row.
Spatial running span task (Albinet et al., 2012; Boucard et al., 2012; Morris & Jones, 1990)
Participants are presented with an empty 4 x 4 matrix on a computer screen, where sequences of six, eight, ten, or twelve black dots are presented randomly in one of the 16 squares of the matrix, at a rate of a dot every two seconds. No location is repeated in the sequence, and the sequence length is never known. Participants are required to recall the last four dot locations at the end of each sequence in strict forward serial recall order using a computer mouse. They must complete twelve sequences, three for each length.
Tone-monitoring task (Larson et al., 1988; Miyake et al., 2000)
Participants are required to keep track of the number of a series of low, medium, and high pitch tones presented randomly. The participants are instructed to press an appropriate keyboard button when they heard three tones of the same pitch.
Verbal running span task (Albinet et al., 2012; Boucard et al., 2012; Morris & Jones, 1990)
Participants are presented with a list of six, eight, ten, and twelve consonants on a computer screen, every two seconds. Participants are instructed to recall the last four consonants at the end of each sequence, strict forward serial recall. The sequence length is never known. They must complete twelve sequences, three for each length.
Word backward span (Yeom et al., 1992)
Essentially the same as the backward digit span but with words instead of digits. Participants are read various increasing span lengths of words and required to immediately verbally recall the span of words in reverse order.
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